Luke Donald, deliberate practice... and a rugby coach?

Excellent piece on deliberate practice in both rugby union and golf by Heads Up contributor, Ally Cooper. Some excellent insights on the practice habits of some of the best performers in their sports...

I recently read a piece on a golf website and it intrigued me a lot. The reason being that Dave Alred, a mentor of one of my sporting hero’s, England and British Lions out-half Jonny Wilkinson was featured. The piece was on his involvement with Luke Donald and how his influence has catapulted Luke from a world ranking of 32 to world number 1. Now as an Irishman, you might think it’s a bit odd that I hold Wilkinson in such high regard, but the reason is simple – he has reached the heights he has because he worked at it, and harder than most (something that I cannot say I did to the best of my ability in the past!).

He is also a perfectionist; he wanted, and still wants to be the best. In his autobiography, he talks about how he has always had the trait. In one exert in states how in primary school  he talks about the first time he did not get 20/20 in his spelling test ‘I sit there, waiting for my marked paper, expecting to see another  20/20, and I see 19/20, I don’t know what to do with myself and I feel a panicky heartbeat.  I feel embarrassed and as the other kids lean over to look at my sheet and remark on my imperfection in surprise a desperate need to wind back the clock and do it again’ (Wilkinson, 2011). Now this might seem extreme, but even then the seeds have been sown and he then states ‘The trouble with rugby is you can’t be perfect. Yet on the rugby field, more than anywhere else, I need perfection’ (Wilkinson, 2011).

So far, I am only at chapter 6 of his autobiography, but he speaks a lot about not wanting to be second best, not wanting to let anyone down, even when winning he felt unfulfilled achievement unless he has played well. This is called fear of failure. This fear can be in the form of failing to achieve the desired goals, fear of letting down ones team mates, or even fear of criticism.

Fear of failure is associated with anticipatory shame in evaluative situations and with the tendency to appraise threat in such situations (Conroy, Willow & Metzler, 2002). This avoidance motivational tendency involves cognitive, emotional and behavioural experiences and typically prompts the adoption of avoidance based goals and strategies such as self-handicapping or low achievement (Conroy & Elliot, 2004). In sport fear of failure has been associated with high levels of stress, worry and anxiety (Conroy, et. al., 2002) and can even affect interpersonal behaviour and well-being (Sagar, Lavallee & Spray, 2009).

A rise in stress levels is not good when taking part in closed skill activities. There are a number of physiological responses that are accompanied with the onset of a stressful situation. These are controlled by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system which regulates the smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, and controls activities that occur during excitement or exertion (Carlson, 2001). Some of the responses that occur are increased eye dilation, elevated heart rate due to the increased stimulation of the adrenal medullae which increases the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, and blood flow to skeletal muscles (Carlson, 2001). How these responses are controlled will have an effect on the athletes control and play within their sport.

These responses can have a huge effect on the performance of an athlete and may be the difference between victory and defeat. A study by Neuman & Thomas highlighted the physiological differences between elite, experienced golfers and novice golfers (2009). The results from the study showed that the elite golfers had a pronounced phasic deceleration in heart rate prior to putting, and showed a greater tendency to show a respiratory pattern of exhaling immediately prior to putting. These physiological patterns in the elite golfer may originate from task familiarity or attentional processes (Neuman & Thomas, 2009).

Deliberate Practice

This can be very debilitating and can hamper many careers but Wilkinson chose to tackle his head on, and try his utmost to prevent failure by practicing more than anyone. Early on in his career he would practice hours on end, resulting on him not coming home until dark, just out kicking and kicking. You might ask yourself why you would put yourself through these endless hours of practice but here’s another example of his personality. During a school game, there’s a try scored out wide and when he runs up to take the kick he hits a clump of grass just in front of the ball and when he makes contact with the ball it just topples over. Now in most people’s minds we could forget about it, but this affects him for weeks; ‘The replay of that kick invades my mind, coming back to haunt me, like a horror film. What did the kick look like? What did these people standing right beside me think of it? What do they think of me now? …….. We have a nice family dinner and watch some TV. Then suddenly the switch is flicked, the tiny kick is on replay again in my head. The next thing I know I’m running around the house for good fifteen or twenty minutes in a massive state of distress’ (Wilkinson, 2011). These examples are very extreme but I know of cases in my own past where there has been something that I have done in games where I wish I had did things differently or made a different decision.

Wilkinson had/ has a close relationship with his Dad and would talk to him about these worries, and his Dad took him to see a specialist kicking coach, Dave Alred. While he was not afraid of spending hours and hours practising, Alred would change how he practised. In his first session with Alred, rather than just go out and kick hundreds of balls, they sit down and he goes through technical aspects of the kick – kicking through the ball, the line of the kick, body position and feedback you feel through the kick. Then they go out and kick a few balls and video the session and goes over some of the main points ‘Imagine the path you are sending the ball down, visualise the feel of the ball, the contact, the successful outcome’ (Wilkinson, 2011). This is called deliberate practice; each practice session now has a meaning. There is no point in going out and kicking over and over, all that is happening is that you are reinforcing bad habits. Each session needs a goal, or series of goals.

Now roll on a few years, January 2010 to be precise and Dave Alred begins to work with Luke Donald. Donald is number 32 in the world. Fifteen months later he is world number one. While it is not all down to Alred, the link between working with Alred and achieving number 1 status cannot be considered a coincidence. It is probably a fair assumption to think to yourself; just what could a kicking coach bring to the table to help an elite professional golfer? What he has brought to Donald’s game is how he practices. While not recognised as a sports psychologist, Alred can be best described as a performance specialist. His job is to make practice more efficient, practice under pressure. He has given Donald the confidence and assurance to believe in his game, through how he practices and the goals that are set in his practice. Rather than worrying about Donald’s ranking the focus was on the standard of performance and how to improve it. This was not achieved by Alred himself and he is the first to admit this, it was a team effort with Alred working closely with Donald’s coach and caddie. A good example of this was directly from Alred in his interview when describing continuing learning, even from elite professionals ‘It’s so sad that players have forgotten the thrill of getting better. A young child just bubbles with excitement to show you the half-volley in football they have just mastered. I think we’ve lost that; It’s part of the coach’s job to regain that vibe, and drench the player in a enthusiasm for getting better’ (Lennard, 2012).

To do this Alred adopts a process that he calls getting the player into the ‘ugly zone’ – a place where they feel uncomfortable, and then systematically nibble away at that discomfort to create competence. This competence should then transfer onto the course and when these previously ugly situations arise, they are no longer feared, but a belief is instilled through practice that the player will approach the shot with more confidence than before.

To achieve this competence the practice would take the form of making it more game specific. Examples include not having warm-up shots, halving the diameter of the hole, anything really to make the player feel uncomfortable. Alred also states how some players relate performance with self-esteem. This tie’s in a lot with Jonny Wilkinson, he thought is he played well, people would think less of him. To make sure this doesn’t happen, Alred states how a good coach will get the player to feel uncomfortable but keep the player’s self-esteem in-tact. To do this Alred states how you work within success. An example could be if the golfer is competent in 90% of 3ft putts, practice at that range and establish competency, and then make the player feel uncomfortable by asking for the same from 4ft. By making them uncomfortable you are challenging them, but have still kept self-esteem by establishing the 3ft competency.

Every practice has a goal or series of goals and stats are kept on these for reference, and to raise expectation. One practice session he does with Donald is to play 9 holes and have 5 attempts per shot. As soon as he is happy with one shot they move on. By doing this, the player can see the potential score that they can shoot based on their current ability. This type of practice is a confidence builder.

While the cross over between golf and rugby kicking may not seem obvious at first, they are both examples of closed skills, under differing levels of pressure at different times during the game. As part of my MSc thesis one of the conclusions was that the best kickers would establish the importance of deliberate practice, not only for the development of physical skills, but also for the development of mental skills. These are important to develop together as they would be used in competition (Hall, 2001). As with golf, there will be outside interferences, such as playing conditions, current score, etc., but in both skills they require conscious attention to what needs to be done (Singer, 2002). To make it competitive the kickers would introduce group competition to replicate the competitive environment. Going into the game confident - whatever the sport - is viewed by players as essential. Athletes who have a strong belief in their ability are able to peak under pressure and cope successfully with adverse situations during competition (Cresswell & Hodge, 2004).

Here’s a short youtube clip looking at Jonny Wilkinson trying to introduce stress in his kicking practice, which is quite similar to what Dave Alred has implemented with Luke Donald – a coincidence – I think not!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mg71xnOERj4

All this is nothing revolutionary though, it’s just a way of organising practice to get the best out of each session. It’s just that sometimes coaches tend to look for quantity over quality. In the words of the great American Football coach Vince Lombardi ‘Practice does not make perfect. Only perfect practice makes perfect.’

References

Carlson, N. R.  (2001)  ‘Physiology of Behaviour’  Allyn and Bacon,  Boston

Conroy, D. E., & Elliot, A. J. (2004), Fear of Failure and Achievement Goals in Sport: Addressing the Issue of the Chicken and the Egg, Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17, pp. 271-285.

Conroy, D. E., Willow, J. P., & Metzler, J. N. (2002),  Multidimensional Fear of Failure Measurement: the Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, pp. 76-90.

Cresswell, S., & Hodge, K.  (2004)  ‘Coping Skills: Role of Trait Sport Confidence and Trait Anxiety’ Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 98, pp. 433 – 438.

Hall, C. R.  (2001)  ‘Imagery in Sport and Exercise’ in Singer, R. N., Hausenblas, H. A., & Janelle, C. M. (eds.) Handbook of Sport Psychology 2^nd Edition, Wiley, New York, pp. 529 – 549.

Lennard, D.  (2012)  ‘The Man Who Made Luke No. 1’, www.golf-world.co.uk//June2012.

Neuman, D. L. & Thomas, P. R.  (2009)  ‘The relationship between skill level and patterns in cardiac and respiratory activity during golf putting’  International Journal of  Psychophysiology’  Vol 72,  No. 3,  pp. 276 – 283.

Singer, R. N.  (2002)  ‘Preperformance State, Routines and Automaticity: What Does it Take to Realise Expertise in Self-Paced Events?’ Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 24, pp. 359 – 375.

Wilkinson, J.  (2011) ‘Jonny, My Autobiography’, Headline.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mg71xnOERj4

Euro 2012 - The games people play

Having watched Euro 2012 so far I’m sure you, like me, have wondered at some point why so many "foreign" players seem so wonderfully talented. They seem technically gifted, incredibly creative and manage to pass and retain possession of the ball with relative ease. In contrast, many of the Irish and English players seem so woefully one dimensional. Their touch is often poor, they often struggle to keep the ball for any extended period of time and when they come up against the better teams, they invariably come unstuck. The foreign players seem to find space where there shouldn’t be any, while our players mis-control the ball when nobody is close.

These views are backed up by most of the game statistics. The Group D encounter between England and France (1-1) saw the French enjoy 61% of the possession. Croatia had 55% of the possession against Ireland, while Ireland only saw a measly 24% of the ball against the Spanish! To give a slightly different view on these figures; after the group phase of the tournament, Spain have had the ball for a total of 120 minutes in their opening three games. France had it for 103 minutes. England, despite beating Sweden and Ukraine, have enjoyed only 80 minutes of the ball, while Ireland have had to make do with only 66 minutes of possession (all statistics from UEFA.com). Most alarming was Spain’s passing total (860 passes of the ball) versus Ireland’s (254 passes) in their Group C encounter.

While we might get frustrated and blame it on such factors as poor management, players lacking belief or determination, or even the occasional dodgy refereeing decision. The truth is, our players are just not as good as some of the best European nations! It is not because we have fewer players to choose from (Croatia is the least populous nation at Euro 2012, yet they beat Ireland 3-1). Nor can we blame it on the maturity or experience of our players (high flying Germany have one of the youngest squads in the tournament). I believe the difference, and the core problem we are witnessing is that our players are just not very well developed from a young age!

There are clearly many factors important to skill development in a young player. These include practice, coaching and the social and cultural environment within which the player grows. There are numerous blogs which could be written on each of these factors alone. However, for the purposes of this blog, I’m going to focus on one single factor; the games children play.

Just three short weeks ago, the English FA introduced a new format for the playing of games at underage level (see table right). The new pathway includes a mandatory 5v5 format of football for under-7s and under-8s and a 9v9 format for under-11 and under-12s. The sizes of the pitches and goals will be modified also to make them more appropriate for children at each age group. These changes are to be phased in by season 2014-15 and reflect a more long-term approach to player development.

Up until this, kids as young as 10 years of age have been playing full-sided games on full sized pitches. The image, left, emphasises the point. Kids playing in big open spaces with a little goalkeeper defending an adult sized goal! England's adoption of a new structure has to be put into perspective, however. The German Football Association have had a similar system running for the past 12 years (in response to their abysmal showing at the Euro 2000 championships); the French and Dutch even longer. The famous Ajax youth academy which has produced many of the best Dutch players have had small-sided games at the heart of player development for decades. A similar movement has revolutionised the way FC Barcelona, and Spain, play the game. In Brazil, players have been brought up for generations on a diet of Futebol de Salao, where small-sided games are played with a modified ball. Why the English FA (and maybe someday the FAI and IFA) are only changing their approach now is a mystery. But the effect of the current format is clear for all to see.

There is no doubt that the development of talented young players will directly affect how they can perform as adults. The introduction of a more appropriate player development pathway by the English FA will reap it’s rewards. However, with the changes only to be made mandatory from 2014, it may take another generation before the fruits of this development are evidenced at senior international level. To understand a little bit more about this approach, we need to briefly look at how small-sided games affect player development.

First we need to explain a rather simple, but revolutionary idea that was first but forward in the mid 1980’s. It is called the Dynamical Systems Approach to skill learning and performance. What this approach to skill learning basically suggests is that the behaviour or actions we learn and produce are the result of constraints imposed upon us. To give an example I’ve attached a clip from the film “Kill Bill" - an odd choice you might think! In this scene, the tutor, Pai Mei, instructs Uma Thurman's character, Black Mamba, to punch a hole in a wooden board with her fist. Critically, she must do this from only 3 inches away. On being asked if she can do it, her first reaction is “I can but not that close”, to which Pai Mei retorts “Then you can’t do it!” The point of this example is that it is not the outcome that is all important. It is being able to do it within set constraints – hitting from only 3 inches away. As Black Mamba practices under this difficult constraint she eventually adapts and learns to perform the skill successfully. Later in the movie she performs the task in a confined space to escape burial in a coffin (sorry for ruining it if you haven’t seen the movie!!).

In football, there are many possible constraints to performance. In training, a coach may impose 1 or 2 touch play, shooting zones, uneven sided games, etc. Each of these is a constraint, and each constraint imposes different demands on the players. So, for example, in 1 or 2 touch games, players must pass better, move better and be more aware of those around them. Players cannot dribble the ball in these games, so nobody hogs the ball and players must get their head up to look for team-mates. These are the behaviours that emerge as a result of the constraints the coach imposed and this is the essence of the Dynamical Systems Approach to learning. We adapt our actions to the constraints of the environment around us and as a result, new behaviours are learned and more efficient ways of performing tasks are developed. It is very different to the old fashioned drills practice and learning by rote – but this is a discussion for another day.

Back to the use of small-sided games with underage footballers. Keep in mind the comparison between 11, 10-year-olds playing in a full sized adult pitch, versus 7 playing on a pitch almost half that size.(with a much smaller goal also). These are the constraints; fewer players, a smaller playing area and smaller goals. Much research has looked at the effects of full- versus small-sided games on smaller pitches. The smaller pitch means that players are closer together (think of Pai Mei's 3 inches!). To retain possession, a player’s technical ability will be challenged. They must learn to control the ball better, and pass it more accurately. Interestingly, players also tend to use both feet to manipulate the ball more in these games! If players have less time, then they are constrained into using their less dominant foot – or else lose possession! Fewer players on the pitch means more touches for each individual player and more touches mean more opportunities to learn and to improve technical skills. Small-sided games also result in more scoring opportunities and the smaller goals require players to be more accurate, while giving the goalkeeper more opportunities to practice and develop their skills in turn. Look back at some of the statistics quoted earlier in this blog... because they might make a little more sense now.

In terms of their perceptual and cognitive skills, players will be challenged to speed up their thought processes, as they will have less time on the ball. They will have to make decisions more quickly, and will have to be more aware of what is going on around them. Physiological analysis of these games also indicate that the intensity of game play is higher, meaning that the fitness demands are greater and so players get fitter by playing them. Oh, and probably the most important point of all... research has also shown that by playing these types of game – kids have more fun! Comparisons between full- and small-sided games show that children enjoy the games more, most likely because they have more touches of the ball and also because they improve their skills more by playing these games! The knock on effect of this in improving a child’s self-esteem, motivation, and future participation should not be underestimated.

Keep in mind, each of these benefits are brought about by a simple change in the size of the pitch, and the number of players on it. The coach is doing nothing different. He is not using some magical formula (well, perhaps he is), and he is not a mystical guru. The associations who have been using this format for years; the Dutch, the French, the Brazilians, the Spanish, etc are not spending a fortune to develop skillful players. Children are simply learning by playing! Imposing smaller sided games on smaller pitches does, however, mean that coaches have to adapt their practices with these children – and so the benefits will filter down to every training and practice experience the children will have. In a way, they are probably just doing the most sensible thing that kids used to always do for themselves.

Remember when we played games of football as children? With no adults around to bother us, we picked two even teams. We set jumpers down at either end of the pitch – far enough apart to play a fair game, and small enough to make it challenging to score. We usually had imaginary sidelines – but if someone passed or dribbled the ball too far away to be challenged, we decided they had crossed that line – so play stayed tight and our skills were challenged. Oh, and if one team was too strong, we swapped a player or two to even it up. We had fun, challenging games and we improved no end – that was until the adults began to tell us how to play!

Clemente, F., Couceiro, M.S., Martins, F.M.L. & Mendes, R. (2012). The usefulness of small-sided games on soccer training. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 12 (1), 93-107

Dyson, B., Griffin, L.L. & Hastie, P. (2004). Sport Education, Tactical games and cooperative learning: Theoretical and Pedagogical considerations. Quest, 56, 226-240

Newell, K. M. (1985). Coordination, control and skill. In D.Goodman, R. B. Wilberg, & I. M. Franks (Eds.), Differing perspectives in motor learning, memory, and control (pp. 295 – 317). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Pope, D. (2011). A new direction for youth football in England. http://www.clubnewsletter.co.uk/

Williams, M.A. & Hodges, N. (2005). Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: challenging tradition. Journal of Sports Sciences.

The penalty shootout - how to beat the odds

With Euro 2012 entering it's final stages, much discussion has, once again, focused on the penalty shootout. England, with all their psychological baggage related to this subject, have openly stated how they are increasing their penalty practice in training. They have been eliminated from major tournaments 5 times since the 1990 World Cup on a penalty shootout decider. Viewed as a lottery by some and an unfair way to decide a major competition by others – there is no denying the drama and excitement they provide. Chelsea memorably claimed their first Champions League title this season by virtue of a penalty shootout win over Bayren Munich.

Indeed, penalty shootouts have, in recent times, been required to decide many major tournaments. Quarter- and semi-finals aside, this season was the 3^rd time since 2005 that penalties have decided the club champions of Europe. This year also, Zambia have claimed the African Cup of Nations on a penalty shootout (beating Didier Drogba’s Ivory Coast 8-7), while only 3 days before Chelsea’s dramatic win, The Netherlands claimed the European U17 title beating Germany 5-4 on penalties in the final. Other major competitions decided this way in the past include both a European Championships final (Czechoslovakia v Germany, 1976) and World Cup finals (Italy v France, 2006; Brazil v Italy, 1994). Clearly, in an age of improving tactics and defensive abilities, penalty kicks are becoming increasingly important. The question on everybody’s mind in the aftermath, of course, is how a professional footballer can miss a clear shot at goal from only 12 yards away.

A penalty shootout is, by its very nature, a highly pressurised situation. Whether it’s a European Championships, a Champions League final or a Saturday morning kickabout, in a penalty kick situation the pressure on the individual to score is huge. All the focus is on that one individual; the keeper, after all, is not expected to save it. As discussed in a previous Heads Up blog (World Snooker Final 2012), pressurised situations increase an individual's anxiety level. Before we delve into the penalty situation, perhaps it’s worth looking at the phenomenon of anxiety a little more closely  – to understand more clearly how it can cause a highly talented player to fail on the simplest of tasks.

Anxiety is defined as “a negative emotional state with feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body”¹. It is the result of highly stressful situations (specifically termed state anxiety), where an individual feels they cannot cope with the demands of that situation. We experience state anxiety all the time in our daily lives; whether you are the student preparing for a difficult exam or the trainee preparing for a job interview. It is associated with higher levels of arousal in the body, one of our most basic responses. At its lowest level, while we are fast asleep, we experience little arousal. Our heart beats slowly, our breathing is deep and relaxed, our body temperature drops and our alertness is decreased. Elevations in arousal are associated with a very primitive reaction to stress termed “Fight or Flight”. When we experience stress, arousal is designed to give us the tools to respond to the situation. For the primitive human, stress came in the form of a wild animal, or a raging forest fire. In those situations, you either stood and fought for survival, or you took flight and ran for your life!

Our primitive arousal response gave us the vital resources we needed to live in both situations. As adrenaline surges through the body, heart rate is elevated to pump oxygen and nutrient rich blood to your muscles, while breathing increases to supply more oxygen. Muscles tense up, providing strength and power, while the pupils of the eyes dilate to increase visual input and provide more information on your surroundings. The brain also increases its ability to process this information and make rapid decisions. All these are positive responses and explain why, in a sporting context, a little arousal is necessary. We need it to perform well. After all, sport is “fight or flight” in the modern age and so the player prepares for combat by “psyching” himself up, preparing both mind and body.

However, beyond a certain point, when arousal becomes too high, many of these responses become a disadvantage. When we get too “psyched-up” or too nervous, our performance begins to suffer. This is termed over-arousal, and the point where anxiety begins to cause problems. The muscles become too tense and affect coordination. Our brain becomes overloaded with too much information, and so we make poor judgments and bad decisions. Our heart pounds, our breathing becomes short and shallow, our palms clammy and we might even feel sick. This is over-arousal, and can be detrimental to performance.

To fully understand how arousal affects the sports person we also need to understand the sporting context. For sports like golf or snooker where fine, delicate judgments of pace and direction are required, the player needs to be calm and more relaxed. Lower levels of arousal are essential in this situation. The opposite is true of a professional wrestler. To perform at his best, he needs a higher level of arousal. We would, after all, feel slightly worried if we saw Rory McIlroy take to the first tee beating his chest, ripping his shirt off and yelling a primal “come-on” to the fans! Each sport and each situation within a sport requires a different optimal level of arousal, below or above which performance is compromised. The graph (right) depicts this relationship between arousal and performance, and is known as the Inverted-U theory of arousal. When arousal gets too high, and we feel we can no longer deal with the situation – we experience anxiety, and performance can suffer badly!

Back to penalty shootouts then. Uniquely in football, a penalty kick is a situation where a player needs to be at a slightly lower level of arousal than normal to perform better. In a penalty situation, the key demands are accuracy and fine judgment of pace and position. Ideally, the penalty taker is a little more relaxed, or confident enough in their abilities to be able to cope successfully. When the pressure of the situation increases and when players do not cope with these increasing demands – then we see the effects of anxiety on performance. Many factors can increase a player’s anxiety in this situation. Interestingly, a study in the Journal of Sport Psychology in 2006² showed that those players who felt the shootout was more of a “lottery”, and the result down to luck, felt more anxious when taking a kick and were more likely to miss. These players did not feel they were in control of the outcome of the penalty situation, and because of this feeling – lack of control – anxiety levels were increased. Additionally these players may be less likely to practice taking penalties, believing that it will not influence the outcome. The key point here is to realise that players are more in control of whether they score or not and that practice will improve performance - perhaps the thinking behind Roy Hodgson's proclomation that England have stepped up their penalty kick preparations going into Euro 2012's knockout phase.

 

But that still does not tell us why a player will fail to score. For this, we need to look at the types of misses that tend to happen. First are the players who miss the target completely – those who blaze the ball high and wide. Statistics from elite level competition³ show that the most successful penalties are those placed in the upper third of the goal, to the keepers left or right. In an analysis of almost 300 top level penalties, 13% were placed here, and all scored – leaving the keeper with virtually no chance of saving the shot. In contrast, 12% of kicks to the middle third and almost 20% of kicks to the bottom third of the goal tend to be saved. While this seems straighforward, it's important to realise that placing a kick in the top left or right corner of the goal is a difficult task. Even the slightest increase in muscle tension can affect coordination, impacting on both accuracy and control. So the anxious player might put a little too much power on the kick, or direct it slightly off the intended target and miss. Anybody remember Chris Waddle's conversion attempt at the 1990 World Cup? Have a look here (2:26 in) and you'll see what I mean!

Next we look at those players who take the feeble penalty, usually aimed directly toward the keeper. In 2009, researchers from the University of Exeter⁴ investigated how a pressured penalty kick situation affected the anxiety and attention of players. They measured attention by using a device which was able to track the eye movements of players, thus revealing what the player was visually focusing on. As expected, players tended to experience more anxiety when the pressure of the kick increased. However, most interesting was the affect this had on what players tended to look at. In a low pressure situation, players tended to look at the open spaces in the corners of the goal. This was, after all, where they wanted to place the ball and, on average, they were more successful at doing so when the pressure was lowest. However, in pressurised conditions, the players tended to look at the goalkeeper to a greater extent. As a result, more penalties were directed closer to the keeper and so, were easier to save. Both the Mata and Olic penalty misses in this season's Champions League final might well fall into this category (Click here to view the shootout in full).

The researchers concluded that in pressurised situations, our attention tends to be drawn naturally to the most threatening object in our visual field. Consider the postman, for example, attempting to deliver a letter when confronted with a growling dog. Will his attention stay on the letterbox, or will it be drawn toward the snarling dog? The answer is obvious and essentially it is the same for the footballer. Their attention is drawn to that one thing they fear will stop them from scoring the penalty – the goalkeeper. And so, we see keepers doing everything in their power to draw that attention (anybody remember Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar’s spaghetti legs in the 1984 European Cup final shootout?). Because visual attention and our resulting actions are closely linked, this study explains why so many players tend to shoot so feebly, and so close to the keeper when they do miss. In the aftermath of this season's Champions League final, Arjen Robben (who missed a penalty in extra-time for Bayern) was quoted as saying “'It wasn't a good penalty. I wanted to shoot the ball hard and high in the goal, but the ball didn't go high enough. It was a terrible penalty kick.”

Research also indicates that in the context of a penalty shootout, more successful players (in terms of trophies, awards, etc) also appear to be at a psychological disadvantage. A fascinating investigation undertaken by Norwegian researchers in 2009⁵ looked at the penalty shootout records of the 8 most successful European nations (in terms of club and international competition). It was suggested that, because they are viewed as successful, these players will tend to have bigger “egos”. As a result, in a situation like a penalty where failure is likely, these players have more to lose because people expect more from them and so the situation, for them, may be more pressurised. The results of the investigation showed that those countries (England, Netherlands, Italy) with the most decorated players at the time of the study (in terms of Champions League titles and awards) were the least successful in terms of international penalty shootouts, the implication being that more is expected of these players and so pressure is greatest on them in this situation. Interestingly, England (won 1, lost 5) and Italy (won 2, lost 5) have two of the worst penalty shootout records of the leading nations in international competition!

It is also noteworthy that these players also tended to spend less time taking their penalties, suggesting a desire to get the situation “over and done with” and also showed greater avoidance behaviour (not wanting to view the situation they were faced with) by turning their back to the goals or looking downward before taking the kick. England are a prime example here. While their club sides have been very successful in European competition, the national team has lost 5 of its 6 penalty shootouts in World or European championships since 1990. It is also interesting to consider that both Christiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi, arguably the two best players in European football, both missed penalty kicks during this season’s Champions League semi-finals.

Of course, the goalkeeper also has a vital role to play in the penalty situation. As mentioned, modern day goalkeepers wear bright, often garish tops designed to attract the visual attention of players, while standing doing a version of Riverdance on the goal-line. Study closely modern goalkeepers during penalty shootouts and you will see both frenzied movements and bright colours used to attract player’s attention. Interestingly, while keepers tend to dive for penalty kicks most of the time (94% of kicks), they only guess correctly 40% of the time. A goalkeeper’s chances of saving a penalty are statistically better when they choose not to dive, with 60% of shots placed in this area being saved³. Remember anxious players tend to shoot more toward the centre of the goal if the keeper has succeeded in attracting their focus of attention. However, keepers tend to dive for a number of reasons. It can take anywhere from half a second to one second for a goalkeeper to complete their dive. A well struck penalty can cross the goal line in 0.4 of a second⁶. So clearly, the advantage is with the kicker and keepers may feel they have to anticipate where the ball will be placed. It has also been suggested that goalkeepers feel they need to perform some action during the penalty kick situation – even if they are guessing which direction to dive. Afterall, it is better to dive and choose the wrong side, than remain static and appear as if you are not attempting anything!  As with everything, however, knowledge and mental training can reduce the guesswork goalkeepers have to make.

In order to anticipate correctly, a goalkeeper needs to focus on a number of important factors to make a correct decision. Research⁷ has shown that a penalty taker will often use the angle of their run up to try to deceive the goalkeeper – pretending to be going one way, then kicking to the opposite side. Didier Drogba takes a slightly different approach, favouring virtually no run up, thus giving the goalkeeper little idea of what he is about to do – resulting in Manuel Neuer guessing the wrong way for the decisive penalty in this season's CL final. What is important, however, are the leg and foot movements of the kicker as they are about to kick the ball. These will directly indicate where the player is going to kick the ball, and so possibly give the goalkeeper that fraction of a second longer to dive and save a penalty. For a goalkeeper, training in this area is effectively learning what to look for, and what to ignore.

So there are many take home messages on penalty shootouts that sport psychology research can teach us. For the penalty kicker, it is important to practice taking penalties, and favour kicking in the upper left, or right, segments of the goal. As with rugby place kickers, discussed in a previous Heads Up post, players need to develop a routine with which they are well rehearsed and comfortable. Once they decide what way they are going to kick the ball, they need to remain focused on this, and ignore the goalkeeper. While pressurised situations are difficult to set up in practice, psychological techniques like imagery and visualisation can be used to mentally practice these situations and help the player retain focus and a feeling of control. Psychological techniques can also be used to lower arousal and anxiety levels. These may include breathing techniques or techniques to control self-talk.

On the opposite side, goalkeepers need to make themselves as visually attractive as possible. Wear bright clothing and move as much as possible on the line (waving hands, etc) to distract the kicker. While it may be possible for a keeper to anticipate the direction of a kick based on close observation of the kickers action, it may sometimes be better to stay patient as a nervous kicker may, inadvertently, be aiming directly at you! Either way, the biggest battle in a penalty situation is often the internal battle waged inside the mind of the player. Sport Psychology training provides players with everything they need to win this battle and increase their chances of success when on the spot.

1.  Weinberg, R.S. & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Human Kinetics.

2. Jordet, G., Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Lemmink, K.A.P.M., & Visscher, C. (2006). The “Russian roulette” of soccer?: Perceived control and anxiety in a major tournament penalty shootout. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 37, 281–298.

3. Bar-Eli, M., Azar, O.H. (2009). Penalty kicks in soccer: an empirical analysis of shooting strategies and goalkeepers preferences. Soccer & Society, 10, 183-191.

4. Wilson, M.R., Wood, G & Vine, S.J. (2009). Anxiety, attention control, and performance impairment in penalty kicks. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31, 761-775.

5.  Jordet, G (2009). Why do England players fail in penalty shootouts? A study of team status, self-regulation, and choking under pressure. Journal of Sport Sciences, 27(2), 97-106.

6. Bar-Eli, M., Azar, O.H., Ritov, I., Keidar-Levin, Y. & Schein, G. (2007). Action bias among elite soccer goal keepers: the case of penalty kicks. Journal of Economic Psychology, 28, 606-621.

7. Dicks, M., Uehara, L., Lima, C (2011). Deception, Individual differences and penalty kicks: Implications for goalkeepers in Association Football. International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching, 6(4), 515-521

A qualitative analysis of the pre-performance routine in rugby union goal kicking

Noel has asked me to write a piece for the blog on my MSc thesis so here it is, feel free to post any comments and questions. Back in the day (12 years to be precise, scary, eh Noel?!) I was one of Noel’s students at ‘the tech’, and he first introduced me to concepts and theory behind sports psychology, and I've been studying it ever since. As a rugby follower I have always thought that kicking is such an important aspect due to the points it is worth that it would be interesting to find out about the kickers themselves and try to find out what how they develop as a kicker and what variables may affect their kicking. With this information it was/is hoped that it would benefit coaches in building an individual pre-performance routine. As this weekend its the European Cup final, it is no surprise that the two teams involved, Ulster and Leinster have two excellent kickers in Ruan Pineear and Jonny Sexton. What are the odds that it could come down to the boot of one of these players?

A qualitative analysis of the pre-performance routine in rugby union goal kicking

It takes a great amount of precision to execute certain self-paced skills in sport. Aligned with this it is important that the performer achieves the psychological state required for executing that skill. In a situation in which the performer controls the initiation of that situation, the performance therefore should only really be determined by external variables beyond the control of the athlete. External variables can come in the form of outside factors such as the intensity of the situation; the competition; the environment; and both physical and mental fatigue.

In the game of rugby union, the goal kickers have often to take penalty kicks or conversions in highly pressurised situations. This closed skill, within an open skill game, is an extremely important aspect, as games can be won or lost depending on the accuracy of the kicker. This target aiming skill requires consistency in performance of the skill, and the pressure can be magnified if the kick is near the end of the game and the points are needed to secure victory. The physiological demands of this skill are important, but aligned with this come the psychological demands that are placed on the kicker.

My study explored and contrasted the routines of eight professional players (7 Irish, 1 Scottish, all international honours, two full internationals; four under 20 years old; four 25 years old and over). Using interviews, the information was examined to explore the participants’ experiences while developing as a kicker and influences on their career. It also explored what aspects may have affected their pre-performance routines during games and if there are any similarities in what works well and what affects their routines. It attempted to understand the cognitive processes and self-regulatory strategies employed by the performers and explore and discuss their thoughts and feelings during kicks. Themes and concepts were also explored which are associated with peak performance in the skill of goal kicking within the sport of rugby union.

In analysis of the data gained through the interviews a series of themes emerged which overlapped between subjects. I have tried to summarise each of the nine distinct themes:

UNIQUENESS

While there were similarities in aspects of the routines between players, each player stressed how it was unique to them. The development of their routine had occurred over time through observational learning from other elite kickers and also expert coaching. The practice and pre-game ritual is also unique to the players and it may have taken time to develop what currently works for them, although it is open for change, especially among the younger players. 

When thinking about any intervention design for elite professional rugby players, Hays et. al. (2009), suggests that any intervention design should reflect the individual needs of that athlete. This might involve identifying that athlete’s sources and types of confidence and ensuring that these are intact during competition preparation phases (Hays et. al., 2009). Each player within the study utilised different cues and images, and in some cases this changed quite regularly. Jackson & Baker (2001) stated how a pre-performance routine should include components that contain behavioural, physiological and cognitive cues. 

USE OF MENTORS, ROLE MODELS AND COACHES

The use of mentors, role models and coaches is something that all of the players have had and are still utilising throughout their career. Several of the participants stated how either going to a coaching session or observing an elite kicker early in their career shaped how they started to kick. Two of the participants had received specialist kicking coaching from the same coach and described how they thought his coaching style was very good because he kept things simple and did not try to complicate things. One of these players had also received specialist kicking coaching from a different coach and had described how they complicated things by always getting them to think about aspects of their kicking. He found that this style of coaching over-complicated what was essentially to him a simplistic kicking style. Maxwell et. al. (2003) suggested that presenting a performer with a large explicit knowledge base through learning may not be the most productive method of acquiring skills. By over-complicating the kick this seems to have made the player shift from an external focus of attention to an internal focus and this did not work for him.

Dave Alred, pictured in this photo with Jonny Wilkinson has developed a routine that suits his style. However, one of the players in my study worked with him while playing in the English Premiership and could not adjust to his coaching style and had to stop working with him, as it was beginning to affect him negatively. He stated how it was making it too complicated for him, and he preferred it kept simple.

SIMPLICITY

When the participants were describing their kicking they tended to describe it as very much an automatic process. Through many hours of practice the players have automated their kick and therefore it is encoded in their implicit memory. The players state how they have all been kicking from an early age and like to keep things simple. This has taken many hours of practice to achieve this.

They all also stressed the importance of practice as not only a source of confidence, but as a reaffiramation of their pre-performance routine. This corresponds with results of previous studies which found that elite performers have highly consistent routine times (Crews & Boutcher, 1986; Wrisberg & Pein, 1992), although these results came in golf and basketball respectively.

CHANGING ROUTINES

While the aim of the players is to develop a routine that is consistent, they are all open to changes and constantly developing and improving their routine. The changes seem to be smaller as they get more experienced but, for the younger players still on development and academy contracts, most are still aspiring to find an ideal routine. Even the most experienced player had changed his routine briefly last season, although he returned to his original after missing a kick. Just as in other skill based activities in which competition is involved, the participant strives to achieve perfection. While the skill of goal kicking is an individual task, the players still spoke about the responsibility they felt, and therefore felt they were open to changes.

IMPORTANCE OF REGULAR ‘STRUCTURED’ PRACTICE

It has been noted that mental skills develop in a similar fashion to physical skills (Cumming & Hall, 2002). It is therefore important to train both physical and mental skills together as they would be used in competition (Hall, 2001; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Through each of the participants’ interviews, the role of confidence in their goal kicking was an important concept. All participants within the study strove to replicate this competitive environment in training to ready them for the pressure of competition. By purposefully engaging in considerable practice, both frequent and consistent performances, this helps to refine the many components of the skill (Bargh & Chartand, 1999).

 

SELF-TALK

Self-talk was highlighted by some of the players as an important aspect of their routine. Previous research evidence suggests that self-talk is beneficial to general sporting performance (Hardy, Gammage & Hall, 2001). However research by Thelwell & Maynard (2002) found that cricketers indicated that the skill can be used in a variety of ways. They found that the positive statements allowed the negative statements to be countered, thus enabling the performers to focus on their cues and to underpin a focus on their goals (Thelwell & Maynard, 2002). This research corresponds with findings from this study in that performers use self-talk phrases to reconnect with the automated skill of goal kicking. The type of self-talk used is also interesting. Participants used phrases such as ‘follow through on target’ and ‘head down’ as positive reinforcements of key skill points. Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos & Theodorakis (2007) suggest that different self-talk cues will have different performance effects and therefore different self-talk will serve different functions.

COMPARTMENTALISING

Most of the players interviewed spoke about being able to separate the role of playing out-half and the open skills involved in that role, with the closed skill role of the kicker. One of the Irish U20 kickers uses the referee’s whistle signalling a penalty as a cue for the role to begin. The whistle could be helping the player in a thought stopping role, in that he can prepare himself for the new role of the kicker.

This disassociation of the two roles was viewed as essential in several cases so that a poor kicking performance would not affect their open play. After each kick has been taken, the participants had differing views on how it would be reviewed. Reflection can be thought of as a form of analysis, a process of evaluation and a tool to facilitate change (Knowles, Tyler, Gilbourne & Eubank, 2006). Several of the players would block the missed kick out and trust in their technique, while others would perform a quick review immediately prior to the next kick.

For all us Ulster fans, a perfect example in present day is Ruan Pineaar, playing at the top of his game at scrum-half, and yet again named in the league team of the year, and also still able to consistently score the majority of his kicks, and many in highly pressurised situations.

CUES

Imagery also played a part in most of the participant’s routines. It has been said that an individual’s capability of forming vivid, controllable images and retaining them for sufficient time to affect the desired imagery rehearsal (Morris, 1997). Literature has suggested that imagery be can be used for a combination of both cognitive and motivational purposes (Munroe, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000), with one of the functions being to develop confidence via mastery-oriented motivational images (Thelwell & Maynard, 2003). Many of the players in the study used the tee as a cue, when it came on to the pitch, they switched into ‘kicking mode’.

MANAGING FATIGUE

In managing fatigue, players had different coping strategies, depending on whether they had been involved in play or how fatigued they felt they were. The main aim was to ensure that fatigue did not have any impact on their kicking routine and that consistency was kept. Fatigue was viewed as an external impact that would affect their thought processes. Several of the players stated how it sometimes affects their normal kicking pattern, and that they may try and ‘overkick’ when it was not needed. Players would use strategies such as tying laces and taking extra drinks from the water bottle to try and return them to as near resting state as possible. Several players also spoke about the contact and collaboration from the bench in these instances, in that the person bringing on the tee would take longer so it was giving the kicker more time to recover both mentally and physically. They can then go into the role of the kicker and begin their pre-performance routine with nothing affecting their thought processes.

Remember Stephen Jones’ kick in the last minutes that fell short to give Ireland their Grand Slam in 2009? A long kick for sure, but ultimately achievable for a player of his ability.

CONSIDERATION OF APPLIED INTERVENTIONS AND ISSUES

While some of these topics may seem obvious it is the development of the kicker from a young age that I feel is important. This information is only a guide and is only a representation of the group that was studied but the age group ranged from 19 – 34. The aim of this study was to qualitatively investigate the kicking careers of eight rugby union players. From an applied point of view there are several findings that may prove useful when working with rugby union goal kickers. While rugby union is a team sport, it is still played by individuals, with arguably the most responsibility within the game being placed on the goal kicker. Participants all spoke about separating the role of playing and goal kicking and the mental preparation involved with both roles. This individuality is perpetuated in their own routine that may have been influenced from others but is, essentially their own. The development of this is critical and must be performed with collaboration between player and coach. Influences that the players experience at an early age can have a profound affect on them and can be key in their development. Providing role models at an early age through coaching clinics may be one way of initialising a sound base for a pre-performance routine in a young player.

Players also spoke about the need for regular practice. However in some cases, practices were not structured enough and sometimes not game specific enough. Practice may need to be structured in a way that is more challenging at the beginning of the week. This could follow the example as set by the experienced Irish players by making it competitive.

If you’ve got this far well done! I tried to cut as much out as possible but feel everything here needed to be here to understand the piece and the data gathered and analysed with the literature.

Since I finished the piece the statistics from the rugby world cup were released.

% of points in tournament from penalties: 23%

% of points from conversions: 16%

That’s a total of 39%

Overall the success rate of penalty goals was 59% and conversions were 69%.

There are a lot more stats on how these influence games and difference between successful teams and unsuccessful teams. 

For me it is a no brainer, it is an aspect of the game that needs a lot of training, both physical and mental, at the elite level potentially more emphasis on the mental. However, while some of the key points may seem ‘obvious’, not many coaches at the younger age groups are employing many, if any of these points. Even the younger professionals in this study had very little formal mental coaching. I am a firm believer in training the mind along with the body, nuturing key psychological skills alongside the physiological and technical, will in long term benefit the place kicker.

Please free to comment, ask questions, or rip apart!